Passionflower Herbarium
Latin Name: Passiflora incarnata
Family: Passifloraceae
Common names: Banana passion fruit, Jamaican honeysuckle, passionvine.
Descriptive Characteristics: Heinerman explains this plant is a woody vine that likes to climb trees and walls. It can get between 12 and 26 feet long. It flowers in late spring and early summer. The outside of the flower is a milky white while the interior color is purple, blue or pink. Gladstar (2012) adds to harvest the flowers and leaves in mid-late summer.
Part of the plant used: Above-ground parts though Native Americans used the roots for boils, cuts, earaches and inflammation (Petersen, 2018, p. 211).
Texture: It feels like hay or dried grass
Color: Green and light brown
Aroma: Like hay
Flavor: kind of sweet and flowery
Constituents: Petersen (2018) mentions a whole list of flavonoids (apigenin, momoorientni, isovitexin, luteolin, quercetin, kaempferol, orientin, rutin, saponaretin, saponarin, vitexin) and harman (harmala) alkaloids (harmine, harmaline, harmalol, harmol, harman, harmin, passiflorine). Maltol, a pyrone methylcarbonic acid as well. G;ycoside give it sedative-hypnotic, anxiolytic, and analgesic properties. The fruit also has the carotenoid lycopene (p. 21-32). Hoffman (2003) says alkaloids, (harmine, harman, harmol, harmaline, harmalol, passiflorine), flavonoids (apigenin, homoorientin, isovitexin, kaempferol, luteolin, orientin, quercetin, rutin, saponaretin, saponarin, vitexen) (p. 570). Chevallier (2016) says flavonoids (apigenin), amino acids, cyanogenic glycosides (gyncardin), indole alkaloids (trace – they think there may be some in there but they aren’t sure…) (p. 119).
Therapeutic Actions: Heinerman suggests it as a tea to help a client sleep. Ulbricht suggests this herb is a sedative, hypnotic and helps with nervous gastrointestinal issues. Hoffman (2003) says nervine, hypnotic, antispasmodic, anodyne, and hypotensive (p. 570). Chevallier (2016) says sedative, antispasmodic, and tranquilizing (p. 119). Peterson has this herb listed as a nervine herb, anti-spasmodic, analgesic, antihysteria, antinausea, antineuralgia, antiseizure, anxiolytic, calmative, cardiac tonic, climacteric, hypnotic, hypotensive, opiate withdraw and sedative (p. 210-217).
Indications: This herb makes a nice tea for relaxing. It also helps lower blood pressure, prevent tachycardia, and relieve insomnia. It does this by depressing the nervous system. The apigenin in it gives it antispasmodic and anti-inflammatory effects. This means it can be used for any action where there is a spasm – Parkinson’s is an example. This herb is very gentle. For insomnia, it leaves no side effects in the morning. It can be used for nerve pain because of its effects on the nervous systems, think neuralgia and shingles. This may help with asthma but use it with respiratory herbs as this just handles the spasm aspect (Hoffman, 2003, p. 570-1). Chevallier (2016) says insomnia, gentle sedative for anxiety, tension, and irritability, and pain relief for toothaches, period pain, and headaches (p. 119). Petersen (2018) states ADHD, cardiac rhythm, climacteric (menopausal) symptoms, gastrointestinal upset, generalized anxiety disorder, generalized seizures, high blood pressure, hysteria, insomnia, nervousness, excitability, neuralgia, opiate withdrawal symptoms, pain relief, and spasmodic asthma (p. 213).
Formulary:
Griffin (1997)
Headache tonic on page 144: 1T skullcap, 1T passionflower, 1T wood betony leaves, 1T hops Boil 2c water, turn off heat add herbs. Cover and steep 10 minutes then strain. Drink ½ cup at a time.
“Pick-me-up” tonic on page 149: 1T skullcap leaves and flowers, 1T passionflower, 1T lavender flowers and leaves, 1t chamomile flowers, 1T lemon grass. Same directions as the headache but steep 15 minutes.
Tonic for migraines, headaches, anxiety, insomnia, and tension (p. 155): 2T valerian root, 2T peony root, 5 jujube red dates, 1/4t licorice root (optional). Simmer in 2c water for 20 minutes. Remove from heat and add 2T passionflower, 2T chamomile flowers, 2T lemon grass. Steep 10 minutes then strain. Drink ½ - 1 cup. Do not use licorice if you have hypertension or edema.
He adache, tense shoulders, and stress tonic (p. 159): 1T passionflower leaves and flowers, 1t black cohosh (optional). Steep passionflower in 1 cup boiled water for 15 minutes, covered. Strain and drink. If the day has been really stressful, Simmer black cohosh 15 minutes in 1c water, covered. Strain and add to passionflower tea.
Nightcap tea (p. 296): 1T chamomile flowers, 1 large passionflower, 1t fresh lemon balm or fresh or dried lemon grass, 1T dried catnip or catmint, 1 drop vanilla extract. Steep herbs in 1 ½ cups boiled water, covered for 10 minutes. Strain and add vanilla.
Chevallier (2016)
Insomnia (p. 309): 1-2 heaping t to ¾ c boiling water. Steep 10-15 minutes. Strain. 1t of tincture will also work. Alternates to this are tablets that contain passionflower or make a sachet or dried herbs and place in your pillow. (100g of herb in a sachet).
Sleeplessness due to back ache (p. 313): Make a decoction (simmer 20-30 minutes, covered then strain) using 8g each passionflower, valerian, and cramp bark to 3c water. Drink ¾ - 1 ¼ c each night. Keeps for 2 nights.
Petersen (2018, p. 158)
Tranquil toner: 1oz each: hops, skullcap, passionflower, valerian. Mix extracts or tinctures. Use 5 drops of extract or 15 drops of tincture in water, 3-4 /day and just before bed.
Culinary uses (p. 216): the ripe fruit can be eaten raw, boiled into syrup, crushed/strained into a juice. The fresh shoots and leaves can be steamed.
Calm Tea (p. 217): 2g passionflower, 1g skullcap, 1g lemon balm. Blend herbs and add to 350 ml of boiling hot water. Steep covered 20-30 min. Strain. Use 3-4 /day.
Dosage:
Ulbricht
.5-2 g of dried herb by mouth 3-4 times daily.
1:8 tincture: 1-4ml 3-4 times a day
Tea from dried herbs: 4-8g.
Infusion: 2.5g 3-4 times a day
Petersen (2018)
Tea: .25-1 gram to 150 ml boiling water, steeped 10-15 minutes
Dried herb: .25-1g
Infusion: 2g to 150 ml boiling water steeped for 20-30 minutes 3-4/day
1:1 25% Liquid Extract: Use .5-1 ml
1:8 45% Tincture: use .5-2 ml
Hoffman (2003, p. 571)
1:4 40% Tincture: 1-4 ml 3/day
Infusion: 1 cup boiling water, 1t of herb, steep 15 minutes. Drink 1 cup before bed for insomnia, 2/day for other indications.
BHP
Dried herb: .25-1g 3/day
1:8 45% Tincture: .5-2ml 3/day
1:1 25% Extract: .5-1ml 3/day
BHC
Dried herb: .5-2g 4/day
1:1 25% Extract: .5-2ml 4/day
Safety/Precautions: Don’t use with sedative drugs. (Peterson, 2018, 217) Hoffman (2003) agrees with Petersen and adds that there may be an issue with monoamine oxidase inhibitors but there is not enough science to say one way or another (p. 571). Gladstar (2012) says this can cause uterine contractions so do not use during pregnancy (p. 208).
Lab, Notes And Media:
The recipe I followed was 1:5 40%. This means you multiply the weight you use in grams by 5 to determine how much 40% alcohol you use. The liquid is called menstruum. I cleaned everything I would need to ensure no contamination. Though these tinctures are small (educational purposes), I still use the quart jars suggested by Wisper to have practice in using the right tools. I purchased measuring devices for milliliters so I can make sure to get those right. She said to use glass because the higher proofs can melt plastic and contaminate the tincture. I then ground the herb into powder. Wisper had a great deal of education and experience with tinctures before writing her book. She said to ensure the same results each time, though some people use fresh or dried herbs, it is best to powder them each time to maximize the amount of menstruum that touches the herb. At this point, I took the clean quart jar and placed it on my scale, after making sure it was set to grams. Even though the package says 1 ounce, I needed to make sure it came out to the expected 28.3495 grams. My scale always rounds up though to 29. I then zero it out before putting my powdered herb into the jar. It came out as expected so I proceeded to the next step. Doing the math, this means I needed 142 ml of 40% alcohol. To get this I had to use 2 measuring devices to ensure a precise amount. I actually swirled the 17 ml that was in my shot glass measurement cup in the bullet container to get any residue off the sides and poured that into the jar as well. I then poured half of what was in the glass measuring cup and swirled the jar. Then I added the remaining amount and stirred it really well. I then put the lid on it the jar and cut the name from the envelope and taped it to the outside of the jar. I did note that this herb floated to the top and will require a bit more shaking throughout the day than my other two. I have created a notebook and a spreadsheet to track tinctures. The spreadsheet does the math for me. I just enter the things that change. I also have a sheet in there that calculates the amount it cost to make the tincture including the menstruum. I wrote all the variable data in my notebook in pencil as that data can change each time I make this.
I checked my tincture at 2 weeks and I was shocked at how strong the alcohol was when I smelled it. It LOOKS really good to me, the herb was nicely swollen with the menstruum. There was oil that settled on top but I shook ti 2-3 times daily. The oil was kind of an orange amber color. Wisper said when they are ready, you won't smell the alcohol anymore. The herbs should be swollen within days of starting the tincture but the odor changes. I could barely smell the passionflower over the smell. I decided to pull out the book to make sure I was remembering correctly and I did mis-remember part of it. It's page 49. The liquid will change color. All of mine are a check on that. The part that I missed was you take the lid off and wait a few seconds for the trapped alcohol to dissipate before smelling it. She specifically shakes them for 90 seconds each time. I have been doing kind of a swirl. I checked my tincture after allowing it to sit a minute without the lid and there is no alcohol smell. I strained it (using my flour towel) into my measuring device so I could find out how much yield to expect from this ratio. The scent is quite concentrated which would be expected from this type of substance. I took a picture of my strained tincture before I bottled it. I put it in a 2-ounce dropper bottle using my 50-ml glass funnel and it filled to just the point where the bottle curves at the top. This really was the perfect size funnel for the size of hole on the bottle. I did have to pour slowly and pause a few times, spilling just a few drops but not too messy. I am actually a little shocked at how dark the liquid is since the oil that was on top was lighter. When it comes to tinctures, I do want to point out Wisper stated 3 different recipes, the class lesson also had a different alcohol percentage. In addition to that, the two sources for dosage also had different ratios. I don’t know which is BEST at this point. Perhaps some experimentation will be needed on this herb in the future. If I have any issues with my tincture that is soaking being too thick, I can adjust it to 1:8 instead of the 1:5 I have it right now.
Family: Passifloraceae
Common names: Banana passion fruit, Jamaican honeysuckle, passionvine.
Descriptive Characteristics: Heinerman explains this plant is a woody vine that likes to climb trees and walls. It can get between 12 and 26 feet long. It flowers in late spring and early summer. The outside of the flower is a milky white while the interior color is purple, blue or pink. Gladstar (2012) adds to harvest the flowers and leaves in mid-late summer.
Part of the plant used: Above-ground parts though Native Americans used the roots for boils, cuts, earaches and inflammation (Petersen, 2018, p. 211).
Texture: It feels like hay or dried grass
Color: Green and light brown
Aroma: Like hay
Flavor: kind of sweet and flowery
Constituents: Petersen (2018) mentions a whole list of flavonoids (apigenin, momoorientni, isovitexin, luteolin, quercetin, kaempferol, orientin, rutin, saponaretin, saponarin, vitexin) and harman (harmala) alkaloids (harmine, harmaline, harmalol, harmol, harman, harmin, passiflorine). Maltol, a pyrone methylcarbonic acid as well. G;ycoside give it sedative-hypnotic, anxiolytic, and analgesic properties. The fruit also has the carotenoid lycopene (p. 21-32). Hoffman (2003) says alkaloids, (harmine, harman, harmol, harmaline, harmalol, passiflorine), flavonoids (apigenin, homoorientin, isovitexin, kaempferol, luteolin, orientin, quercetin, rutin, saponaretin, saponarin, vitexen) (p. 570). Chevallier (2016) says flavonoids (apigenin), amino acids, cyanogenic glycosides (gyncardin), indole alkaloids (trace – they think there may be some in there but they aren’t sure…) (p. 119).
Therapeutic Actions: Heinerman suggests it as a tea to help a client sleep. Ulbricht suggests this herb is a sedative, hypnotic and helps with nervous gastrointestinal issues. Hoffman (2003) says nervine, hypnotic, antispasmodic, anodyne, and hypotensive (p. 570). Chevallier (2016) says sedative, antispasmodic, and tranquilizing (p. 119). Peterson has this herb listed as a nervine herb, anti-spasmodic, analgesic, antihysteria, antinausea, antineuralgia, antiseizure, anxiolytic, calmative, cardiac tonic, climacteric, hypnotic, hypotensive, opiate withdraw and sedative (p. 210-217).
Indications: This herb makes a nice tea for relaxing. It also helps lower blood pressure, prevent tachycardia, and relieve insomnia. It does this by depressing the nervous system. The apigenin in it gives it antispasmodic and anti-inflammatory effects. This means it can be used for any action where there is a spasm – Parkinson’s is an example. This herb is very gentle. For insomnia, it leaves no side effects in the morning. It can be used for nerve pain because of its effects on the nervous systems, think neuralgia and shingles. This may help with asthma but use it with respiratory herbs as this just handles the spasm aspect (Hoffman, 2003, p. 570-1). Chevallier (2016) says insomnia, gentle sedative for anxiety, tension, and irritability, and pain relief for toothaches, period pain, and headaches (p. 119). Petersen (2018) states ADHD, cardiac rhythm, climacteric (menopausal) symptoms, gastrointestinal upset, generalized anxiety disorder, generalized seizures, high blood pressure, hysteria, insomnia, nervousness, excitability, neuralgia, opiate withdrawal symptoms, pain relief, and spasmodic asthma (p. 213).
Formulary:
Griffin (1997)
Headache tonic on page 144: 1T skullcap, 1T passionflower, 1T wood betony leaves, 1T hops Boil 2c water, turn off heat add herbs. Cover and steep 10 minutes then strain. Drink ½ cup at a time.
“Pick-me-up” tonic on page 149: 1T skullcap leaves and flowers, 1T passionflower, 1T lavender flowers and leaves, 1t chamomile flowers, 1T lemon grass. Same directions as the headache but steep 15 minutes.
Tonic for migraines, headaches, anxiety, insomnia, and tension (p. 155): 2T valerian root, 2T peony root, 5 jujube red dates, 1/4t licorice root (optional). Simmer in 2c water for 20 minutes. Remove from heat and add 2T passionflower, 2T chamomile flowers, 2T lemon grass. Steep 10 minutes then strain. Drink ½ - 1 cup. Do not use licorice if you have hypertension or edema.
He adache, tense shoulders, and stress tonic (p. 159): 1T passionflower leaves and flowers, 1t black cohosh (optional). Steep passionflower in 1 cup boiled water for 15 minutes, covered. Strain and drink. If the day has been really stressful, Simmer black cohosh 15 minutes in 1c water, covered. Strain and add to passionflower tea.
Nightcap tea (p. 296): 1T chamomile flowers, 1 large passionflower, 1t fresh lemon balm or fresh or dried lemon grass, 1T dried catnip or catmint, 1 drop vanilla extract. Steep herbs in 1 ½ cups boiled water, covered for 10 minutes. Strain and add vanilla.
Chevallier (2016)
Insomnia (p. 309): 1-2 heaping t to ¾ c boiling water. Steep 10-15 minutes. Strain. 1t of tincture will also work. Alternates to this are tablets that contain passionflower or make a sachet or dried herbs and place in your pillow. (100g of herb in a sachet).
Sleeplessness due to back ache (p. 313): Make a decoction (simmer 20-30 minutes, covered then strain) using 8g each passionflower, valerian, and cramp bark to 3c water. Drink ¾ - 1 ¼ c each night. Keeps for 2 nights.
Petersen (2018, p. 158)
Tranquil toner: 1oz each: hops, skullcap, passionflower, valerian. Mix extracts or tinctures. Use 5 drops of extract or 15 drops of tincture in water, 3-4 /day and just before bed.
Culinary uses (p. 216): the ripe fruit can be eaten raw, boiled into syrup, crushed/strained into a juice. The fresh shoots and leaves can be steamed.
Calm Tea (p. 217): 2g passionflower, 1g skullcap, 1g lemon balm. Blend herbs and add to 350 ml of boiling hot water. Steep covered 20-30 min. Strain. Use 3-4 /day.
Dosage:
Ulbricht
.5-2 g of dried herb by mouth 3-4 times daily.
1:8 tincture: 1-4ml 3-4 times a day
Tea from dried herbs: 4-8g.
Infusion: 2.5g 3-4 times a day
Petersen (2018)
Tea: .25-1 gram to 150 ml boiling water, steeped 10-15 minutes
Dried herb: .25-1g
Infusion: 2g to 150 ml boiling water steeped for 20-30 minutes 3-4/day
1:1 25% Liquid Extract: Use .5-1 ml
1:8 45% Tincture: use .5-2 ml
Hoffman (2003, p. 571)
1:4 40% Tincture: 1-4 ml 3/day
Infusion: 1 cup boiling water, 1t of herb, steep 15 minutes. Drink 1 cup before bed for insomnia, 2/day for other indications.
BHP
Dried herb: .25-1g 3/day
1:8 45% Tincture: .5-2ml 3/day
1:1 25% Extract: .5-1ml 3/day
BHC
Dried herb: .5-2g 4/day
1:1 25% Extract: .5-2ml 4/day
Safety/Precautions: Don’t use with sedative drugs. (Peterson, 2018, 217) Hoffman (2003) agrees with Petersen and adds that there may be an issue with monoamine oxidase inhibitors but there is not enough science to say one way or another (p. 571). Gladstar (2012) says this can cause uterine contractions so do not use during pregnancy (p. 208).
Lab, Notes And Media:
The recipe I followed was 1:5 40%. This means you multiply the weight you use in grams by 5 to determine how much 40% alcohol you use. The liquid is called menstruum. I cleaned everything I would need to ensure no contamination. Though these tinctures are small (educational purposes), I still use the quart jars suggested by Wisper to have practice in using the right tools. I purchased measuring devices for milliliters so I can make sure to get those right. She said to use glass because the higher proofs can melt plastic and contaminate the tincture. I then ground the herb into powder. Wisper had a great deal of education and experience with tinctures before writing her book. She said to ensure the same results each time, though some people use fresh or dried herbs, it is best to powder them each time to maximize the amount of menstruum that touches the herb. At this point, I took the clean quart jar and placed it on my scale, after making sure it was set to grams. Even though the package says 1 ounce, I needed to make sure it came out to the expected 28.3495 grams. My scale always rounds up though to 29. I then zero it out before putting my powdered herb into the jar. It came out as expected so I proceeded to the next step. Doing the math, this means I needed 142 ml of 40% alcohol. To get this I had to use 2 measuring devices to ensure a precise amount. I actually swirled the 17 ml that was in my shot glass measurement cup in the bullet container to get any residue off the sides and poured that into the jar as well. I then poured half of what was in the glass measuring cup and swirled the jar. Then I added the remaining amount and stirred it really well. I then put the lid on it the jar and cut the name from the envelope and taped it to the outside of the jar. I did note that this herb floated to the top and will require a bit more shaking throughout the day than my other two. I have created a notebook and a spreadsheet to track tinctures. The spreadsheet does the math for me. I just enter the things that change. I also have a sheet in there that calculates the amount it cost to make the tincture including the menstruum. I wrote all the variable data in my notebook in pencil as that data can change each time I make this.
I checked my tincture at 2 weeks and I was shocked at how strong the alcohol was when I smelled it. It LOOKS really good to me, the herb was nicely swollen with the menstruum. There was oil that settled on top but I shook ti 2-3 times daily. The oil was kind of an orange amber color. Wisper said when they are ready, you won't smell the alcohol anymore. The herbs should be swollen within days of starting the tincture but the odor changes. I could barely smell the passionflower over the smell. I decided to pull out the book to make sure I was remembering correctly and I did mis-remember part of it. It's page 49. The liquid will change color. All of mine are a check on that. The part that I missed was you take the lid off and wait a few seconds for the trapped alcohol to dissipate before smelling it. She specifically shakes them for 90 seconds each time. I have been doing kind of a swirl. I checked my tincture after allowing it to sit a minute without the lid and there is no alcohol smell. I strained it (using my flour towel) into my measuring device so I could find out how much yield to expect from this ratio. The scent is quite concentrated which would be expected from this type of substance. I took a picture of my strained tincture before I bottled it. I put it in a 2-ounce dropper bottle using my 50-ml glass funnel and it filled to just the point where the bottle curves at the top. This really was the perfect size funnel for the size of hole on the bottle. I did have to pour slowly and pause a few times, spilling just a few drops but not too messy. I am actually a little shocked at how dark the liquid is since the oil that was on top was lighter. When it comes to tinctures, I do want to point out Wisper stated 3 different recipes, the class lesson also had a different alcohol percentage. In addition to that, the two sources for dosage also had different ratios. I don’t know which is BEST at this point. Perhaps some experimentation will be needed on this herb in the future. If I have any issues with my tincture that is soaking being too thick, I can adjust it to 1:8 instead of the 1:5 I have it right now.
Research:
Weiss says to use this with other herbs as it is a very mild sedative and hypnotic. Both the vine and flower are used. Boil 1 pint of water. Clip the fresh herb into 1-inch pieces to about 2/3 cup. Add to the water. Cover and simmer for 10 minutes. Then set aside and steep for 40 minutes. Strain and refrigerate. Warm to lukewarm to drink 1 cup every 5 hours.
Ulbricht mentions side effects have occasionally been reported but there has been no testing done to investigate contamination of the herb sample. Examples reported have been rapid heart beat, nausea, vomiting and bleeding.
Dantas et al. investigated if passionflower’s sedative effects help with dental procedures. They treated patients with 260 mg 30 minutes before procedure and it had the same effect as 15 mg of midazolam in relieving the anxiety of the patients.
References
Chevallier, A. (2016). Encyclopedia of Herbal Medicine: 550 Herbs and Remedies for common Ailments. New York, NY: DK, a Division of Penguin Random House, LLC. p. 119.
Dantas, L. P., Oliveira-Ribeiro, A., Almeida-Souza, L. M., and Groppo, F. C. (2017). Effects of passiflora incarnata and midazolam for control of anxiety in patients undergoing dental extraction. Medicina Oral Patologia Oral y Cirugia Bucal 22 (1):e95-101. doi:10.4317/medoral.21140
Gladstar, R. (2012). Medicinal Herbs: A Beginner’s Guide. North Adams, MA: Storey Publishing. P. 40, 116, 129, 208
Griffin, J. (1997). Mother Nature’s Herbal: A Complete Guide for Experiencing the Beauty, Knowledge, & Synergy of Everything that Grows. Woodbury, MN: Llewellyn Publications. P. 144, 149, 155, 159, 296.
Heinerman, J. (1996). Healing Herbs and Spices, Heinerman’s Encyclopedia of. Reward Books. P. 366-367.
Hoffman, David. (2003). Medical Herbalism: The Science and Practice of Herbal Medicine. Rochester, VT: Healing Arts Press. p. 570.
Peterson, D. (2018). Herb 503: Advanced Herbal Materica Medica II. American College of Healthcare Sciences. P. 210-217.
Ulbricht, C. E. (2010). Natural Standard Herb & Supplement Guide: An Evidence-based Guide. Mosby, Inc. Elsevier, Inc. P 332-4.
Weiss, R. F. & Fintelmann, V. (2000). Herbal Medicine. Theime. P 267-268.
Wisper, T. (2014). Making Tinctures: Beyond the folk method. Thyme Whisper Herb Shop, Inc.
Weiss says to use this with other herbs as it is a very mild sedative and hypnotic. Both the vine and flower are used. Boil 1 pint of water. Clip the fresh herb into 1-inch pieces to about 2/3 cup. Add to the water. Cover and simmer for 10 minutes. Then set aside and steep for 40 minutes. Strain and refrigerate. Warm to lukewarm to drink 1 cup every 5 hours.
Ulbricht mentions side effects have occasionally been reported but there has been no testing done to investigate contamination of the herb sample. Examples reported have been rapid heart beat, nausea, vomiting and bleeding.
Dantas et al. investigated if passionflower’s sedative effects help with dental procedures. They treated patients with 260 mg 30 minutes before procedure and it had the same effect as 15 mg of midazolam in relieving the anxiety of the patients.
References
Chevallier, A. (2016). Encyclopedia of Herbal Medicine: 550 Herbs and Remedies for common Ailments. New York, NY: DK, a Division of Penguin Random House, LLC. p. 119.
Dantas, L. P., Oliveira-Ribeiro, A., Almeida-Souza, L. M., and Groppo, F. C. (2017). Effects of passiflora incarnata and midazolam for control of anxiety in patients undergoing dental extraction. Medicina Oral Patologia Oral y Cirugia Bucal 22 (1):e95-101. doi:10.4317/medoral.21140
Gladstar, R. (2012). Medicinal Herbs: A Beginner’s Guide. North Adams, MA: Storey Publishing. P. 40, 116, 129, 208
Griffin, J. (1997). Mother Nature’s Herbal: A Complete Guide for Experiencing the Beauty, Knowledge, & Synergy of Everything that Grows. Woodbury, MN: Llewellyn Publications. P. 144, 149, 155, 159, 296.
Heinerman, J. (1996). Healing Herbs and Spices, Heinerman’s Encyclopedia of. Reward Books. P. 366-367.
Hoffman, David. (2003). Medical Herbalism: The Science and Practice of Herbal Medicine. Rochester, VT: Healing Arts Press. p. 570.
Peterson, D. (2018). Herb 503: Advanced Herbal Materica Medica II. American College of Healthcare Sciences. P. 210-217.
Ulbricht, C. E. (2010). Natural Standard Herb & Supplement Guide: An Evidence-based Guide. Mosby, Inc. Elsevier, Inc. P 332-4.
Weiss, R. F. & Fintelmann, V. (2000). Herbal Medicine. Theime. P 267-268.
Wisper, T. (2014). Making Tinctures: Beyond the folk method. Thyme Whisper Herb Shop, Inc.
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